International Law Review

International Law Review

Reducing Space Threats in the Light of Soft Law: A Case Study of General Assembly Resolution 75/36 (2020) (Original Research)

Document Type : academic

Authors
Elham Aminzadeh 1
Mohammad Moghaddami 2
Rana Madadi 3
1 Department of International Law, Faculty of Law and Political Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
2 Ph.D. Student in International Law, Department of International Law, Faculty of Law and Political Science, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran
3 M.A. in International Law, Department of International Law, Faculty of Law, College of Farabi, University of Tehran, Qom, Iran
10.22066/cilamag.2023.707229
Abstract
Today, several factors threaten space assets, and the weaponisation of outer space is among the most important ones. Therefore, preventing the weaponisation of space is of high priority to States. In this regard, there have been many efforts in the two dimensions of Hard Law and Soft Law during the last decades, which have often faced failure. However, in recent years, the trend towards Soft Law to prevent or reduce space threats has increased among States. Resolution 75/36 (2020) entitled "Reducing Space Threats through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behavior" is one of the latest resolutions of the United Nations General Assembly concerning this issue, which has been highly accepted by States. This Resolution is of importance because, unlike previous resolutions, it emphasizes the "behaviour" of States. This article tries to answer the question of how the mentioned resolution as an example of Soft Law is effective in reducing the threat of space assets.
Keywords
Weaponisation of Space
Space Threat
Space Law
Soft Law
Disarmament
Responsible Behaviours
Arms Race

Subjects

  1. - Book

    1. Lindgren, David, An Assessment Framework for Compliance with International Space Law and Norms Promoting Equitable Access and Use of Space for Emerging Actors, Springer, 2020.

     

    -Chapter of a Book

    1. Aoki, Setsuko, “The Function of ‘Soft Law’ in the Development of International Space Law”, in: Irmgard Marboe (ed.), Outer Space: The Function of Non-binding Norms in International Space Law, Böhlau Verlag, 2012.
    2. Boyle, Alan, “The Choice of a Treaty: Hard law versus Soft Law”, in: Malone Chesterman, Ivanovic Villalpando (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of United Nations Treaties, Oxford University Press, 2019.
    3. Brunnée, Jutta, “Sources of International Environmental Law: Interactional Law”, in: Samantha Besson, Jean d’Aspremont (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Sources of International Law, Oxford University Press, 2017.
    4. Brünner, Christian, Georg Königsberger, “Regulatory Impact Assessment- A Tool to Strengthen Soft Law Regulations”, in: Irmgard Marboe (ed.), Outer Space: The Function of Non-binding Norms in International Space Law, Böhlau Verlag, 2012.
    5. Ferrazzani, Marco, “Soft Law in Space Activities- An Updated View”, in: Irmgard Marboe (ed.), Outer Space: The Function of Non-binding Norms in International Space Law, Vienna: Böhlau Verlag, 2012.
    6. Fitzmaurice, Malgosia, “The History of Article 38 of the Statute of the International Court of Justice: The Journey from the Past to the Present”, in: Samantha Besson, Jean d’Aspremont (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Sources of International Law, Oxford University Press, 2018.
    7. Freeland, Steven, “For Better or for Worse?: The Use of 'Soft Law' within the International Legal Regulation of Outer Space”, Annals of Air And Space Law, 36, 2011.
    8. Freeland, Steven, “The Laws of War in Outer Space”, in: K.-U. Schrogl et al. (eds.), Handbook of Space Security, Springer, 2015.
    9. Freeland, Steven, “The Role of ’Soft Law’ in Public International Law and its Relevance to the International Legal Regulation of Outer Space”, in: Irmgard Marboe (ed.), Outer Space: The Function of Non-binding Norms in International Space Law, Böhlau Verlag, 2012.
    10. Marboe, Irmgard, “The Importance of Guidelines and Codes of Conduct for Liability of States and Private Actors”, in: Irmgard Marboe (ed.), Outer Space: The Function of Non-binding Norms in International Space Law, Vienna: Böhlau Verlag, 2012.
    11. Mayence, Jean-François, “The European Union’s Initiative for a Code of Conduct on Space Activities: A Model of Soft Law for Outer Space?”, in: Irmgard Marboe (ed.), Outer Space: The Function of Non-binding Norms in International Space Law, Böhlau Verlag, 2012.
    12. Redgwell, Catherine, “Sources of International Environmental Law: Formality and Informality in the Dynamic Evolution of International Environmental Law Norms”, in: Samantha Besson, Jean d’Aspremont (eds.), The Oxford Handbook of the Sources of International Law, Oxford, 2017.
    13. Sakalala, Sharifah, “Hard Law and Soft Law in the Global Context”, in: Sharifa Sekalala (ed.), Soft Law and Global Health Problems: Lessons from Responses to HIV/AIDS, Malaria and Tuberculosis, Cambridge University Press,
    14. Tronchetti, Fabio, “A Soft Law Approach to Prevent the Weaponisation of Outer Space”, in: Irmgard Marboe (ed.), Outer Space: The Function of Non-binding Norms in International Space Law, Böhlau Verlag, 2012.

    - Article

    1. Abbott, Kenneth W., Duncan Snidal, “Hard and Soft Law in International Governance”, International Organization, Vol. 54, Iss. 03, 2000.
    2. Al Banna, Mahir, “Soft Law to Regulate Outer SpaceActivities?", Multicultural Education, Vol. 7, Iss. 6, 2021.
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    4. Byrd, Laura C., “Soft Law in Space: A Legal Framework for Extraterrestrial Mining”, Emory Law Journal, Vol. 71, Iss. 4, 2022.
    5. Cantú-Rivera, Humberto, “The Expansion of International Law Beyond Treaties”, AJIL Unbound, Vol. 108, 2014.
    6. Cárdenas Castañeda, Fabián Augusto, “A Call for Rethinking the Sources of International Law: Soft Law and the Other Side of the Coin”, Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional, Vol. XIII., 2013.
    7. Danilenko, Gennady M., “Outer Space and the Multilateral Treatymaking Process”, High Technology Law Journal, Vol. 4:217, 1990.
    8. Frandsen, Hjalte Osborn, “Looking for the Rules of the Road of Outer Space: A Search for Basic Traffic Rules in Treaties, Guidelines and Standards”, Journal of Space Safety Engineering, 9, Iss. 2, 2022.
    9. Han-Taek, Kim, “Militarization and Weaponization of Outer Space in International Law”, JAKO, Vol. 6, Iss. 30, 2018.
    10. Jakhu, Ram S., Chen, Kuan-Wei, Bayar Goswami, “Threats to Peaceful Purposes of Outer Space: Politics and Law”, Astropolitics, Vol. 18, Iss. 1, 2020.
    11. Koplow, David A., “The Fault Is Not in Our Stars: Avoiding an Arms Race in Outer Space”, Int'l L.J., Vol. 59, Iss. 2, 2018.
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    15. Maxim, Felicia, “Hard Law versus Soft Law in International Law”, Conferinta Internationala de Drept, Studii Europene si Relatii Internationale, 2020.
    16. Mosteshar, Sa'id, “Space Law and Weapons in Space”, Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Planetary Science, 2019.
    17. Rajamani, Lavanya, “The 2015 Paris Agreement: Interplay Between Hard, Soft and Non-Obligations”, Journal of Environmental Law, 28, 2016.
    18. Tannenwald, Nina, “Law versus power on the high frontier: The case for a rule-based regime for outer space”, Yale J. Int'l L., Vol. 29, Iss. 2, 2004.
    19. Tarelli, Elis, “The Strengths and Weaknesses of Soft law as a Source of International Financial Regulation”, 2009. Available at SSRN: https://ssrn.com/abstract=1467842or http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1467842
    20. Tepper, Eytan, “Space Force One: The Complex Laws of Space Warfare”, SSRN Electronic Journal, 2020.
    21. Van Loon, Fabio, “Codifying Jus in Bello Spatialis- The Space Law of Tomorrow”, Strategic Studies Quarterly, Vol. 15, Iss. 1, 2021.
    22. Wang, Guoyu, Chen, Junzhe, “On the New Initiative for Responsible Space Behaviors Proposed by United Kingdom, United States, and Other States”, Space Sci. Technol., Vol. 3, Article: 0033, 2023.
    23. Wessel, Brian, “The Rule of Law in Outer Space: The Effects of Treaties and Nonbinding Agreements on International Space Law”, HastingsInt'l &Comp.L. Rev., Vol. 35, Iss. 2, 2012.
    24. Williamson, Richard L., “Hard Law, Soft Law, and Non-Law in Multilateral Arms Control: Some Compliance Hypotheses”, CJIL, Vol. 4, Iss. 1, 2003.
    25. Yoo, John, “Rules for the Heavens: The Coming Revolution in Space and the Law of War”, University of Illinois Law Review, Vol. 2020, Iss. 1., 2020.

     

    - Report

    1. A Brief Overview of Norms Development in Outer Space, UNIDIR, 2012.
    2. McClintock, Bruce, Feistel, Katie, Ligor, Douglas C., Kathryn O’Connor, “Responsible Space Behavior for the New Space Era Preserving the Province of Humanity”, RAND Corporation, 2021.
    3. Harrison, Todd, Cooper, Zack, Johnson, Kaitlyn, Thomas G. Roberts, “Threats to Space Systems”, CSIS, 2017.
    4. Deepak Sharma, Brigadier, “Threats to Space Assets and India's Options”, IDSA Occasional Paper, No. 22, 2011.

     

    - Thesis

    1. Nadarajah, Hema, “Soft Law and International Relations: The Arctic, Outer Space, and Climate Change”, A Thesis Submitted in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the Degree of Doctor of Philosophy, the Faculty of Graduate and Postdoctoral Studies (Political Science), The University of British Columbia (Vancouver), 2020.

    - UN Document

    1. A/RES/75/36, Resolution Adopted by the General Assembly on 7 December 2020, “Reducing Space Threats through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behaviours”.
    2. A/75/397: Prevention of an Arms Race in Outer Space: Report of the 1st Committee: General Assembly, 75th Session, 16 November, 2020.
    3. A/75/PV.37: General Assembly Official Records, 75th Session: 37th Plenary Meeting, Monday, 7 December 2020.
    4. ILC Draft Articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts (2001).
    5. ILC Draft Articles on the Responsibility of International Organizations (2011).
    6. Liability Convention: Convention on International Liability for Damage Caused by Space Objects (1971).
    7. Outer Space Treaty: Treaty on Principles Governing the Activities of States in the Exploration and Use of Outer Space, including the Moon and Other Celestial Bodies (1967).
    8. Protocol to the Convention on International Interests in Mobile Equipment on Matters Specific to Space Assets (2012).
    9. Registration Convention: Convention on Registration of Objects Launched into Outer Space (1975).
    10. A/C.1/75/L.45/Rev.1: Draft Resolution Reducing Space Threats through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behaviours, United Nations First Committee, 23 October, 2020.
    11. Views and Analysis of the Islamic Republic of Iran on the Resolution “Reducing Space Threats through Norms, Rules, and Principles of Responsible Behavior” Proposed by United Kingdom of Great Britain and Northern Irelandin the First Committee of the UN (A/C.1/75/L.45/Rev.1) 11/6/2020.

     

    - Webpage

    1. “Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space: Membership Evolution”, UNOOSA, available at: https://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ ourwork/copuos/members/evolution.html, (Accessed October 19, 2022).
    2. “Outer Space”, UN Office for Disarmament Affairs, available at: https://www.un.org/disarmament/topics/outerspace, (Accessed October 19, 2022).
    3. “Report of the Secretary- General on Reducing Space Threats through Norms, Rules and Principles of Responsible Behaviors (2021)”, UN Office for Disarmament Affairs, available at: https://www.un.org/ disarmament/topics/outerspace-sg-report-outer-space-2021/, (Accessed October 26, 2022).
    4. “UN Resolution on Norms of Responsible Behaviours in Space- A Step Forward to Preserve Stability in Space?”, ESPI Briefs, No. 54, 2021, available at: https://www.espi.or.at/briefs/un-resolution-on-norms-of-responsible-behaviours-in-space/ (Accessed October 26, 2022).

     

  • Receive Date 26 February 2023
  • Revise Date 05 June 2023
  • Accept Date 26 August 2023