References
- Books
1. Dinstein, Yoram. The Conduct of Hostilities under the Law of International Armed Conflict. 4th ed. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2022.
2. Gross, Michael. Moral Dilemmas of Modern War. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2010.
3. Henckaerts, Jean-Marie, and Louise Doswald-Beck. Customary International Humanitarian Law: Volume I – Rules. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2009.
4. Melzer, Nils. Targeted Killing in International Law. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2008.
5. Sassòli, Marco, International Humanitarian Law: Rules, Controversies, and Solutions to Problems Arising in Warfare. Cheltenham: Edward Elgar, 2019.
- Articles
1. Ahdab, Dana, “The Rebirth of Universal Jurisdiction: How the Syrian Conflict Has Led to the Expansion of the Use of Universal Jurisdiction.” Columbia Journal of Transnational Law 61, no. 1 (2023).
2. Ahmadi Arian, Amir, “In Evin Prison.” London Review of Books 47, no. 14 (2025).
3. Badar, Mohamed, “The Mental Element in the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court: A Commentary from a Comparative Criminal Law Perspective,” Criminal Law Forum 19, no. 3 (2008).
4. Bauhn, Per. “Just War, Human Shields, and the 2023–24 Gaza War.” Ethics & Global Politics (2024).
5. Cotter, Maurice, “Military Necessity, Proportionality and Dual-Use Objects at the ICTY: A Close Reading of the Prlić et al. Proceedings on the Destruction of the Old Bridge of Mostar,” Journal of Conflict & Security Law 23 (2018).
6. Farah, Sophie. “The Principles of Distinction and Proportionality in International Humanitarian Law.” Hull Law Review 1 (2023–24).
7. Ghalandari, Taher, and Mahin Sobhani. “The Concept of Human Shield and Its Challenges by Looking at the Principle of Proportionality in International Humanitarian Law with an Emphasis on Israel’s 2023–2024 Attack on Gaza.” International Law Review 42, 78 (2024).
8. Ghorbani Darzi Mahaleh, Afsaneh, Mahin Sobhani, Mojtaba Janipour, and Mohammad Reza Nazarinejad, “Review of the Nature and Elements of Superior Responsibility in the Statute of the International Criminal Court with Emphasis on the Court's Jurisprudence in the Cases of Ukraine and Palestine.” Criminal Law Research 16, 32 (2025).
9. Godnick, William H. and Iñaki Aguerreche, “Soldiers and Prisons: Reflections on Military Interventions in the Latin American and Caribbean Prison System,” Perry Center Occasional Paper (2023).
10. Guha, Shouvik Kumar. “The Concept of Trials in Absentia in International Criminal Law and the Special Tribunal for Lebanon: An Overview.” Christ University Law Journal 1, no. 1 (2012).
11. Henderson, Ian, and Kate Reece. “Proportionality under International Humanitarian Law: The ‘Reasonable Military Commander’ Standard and Reverberating Effects.” Vanderbilt Journal of Transnational Law 51, no. 3 (2018).
12. Jianqiang Song, “Article 13(b): Intentionally Left Unresolved by the Rome Statute? An On-the-spot Focus on Darfur’s Situation”, (Paper prepared for the Symposium on the International Criminal Court), (Paper prepared for the Symposium on the International Criminal Court, Beijing), International Centre for Criminal Law Reform and Criminal Justice Policy 3-4 (2007).
13. Khabbazi Khadar, S. T., and S. M. Seyyedzadeh Sani. “Absentia Trial in the International Criminal Court: Interaction of Kenyan Case and the General Assembly’s Enactments.” Iranian Research Letter of International Politics 8, no. 1 (2020).
14. Luban, David. “Military Necessity and the Cultures of Military Law.” Leiden Journal of International Law 26, no. 2 (2013).
15. Maroonian, Anaïs. “Proportionality in International Humanitarian Law: A Principle and a Rule.” Lieber Institute, West Point (2022).
16. Mirjafari, Seyed Hossein, Shahram. Zarneshan, and Samaneh. Rahmatifar. “Universal Jurisdiction of Iranian Courts in International Criminal Law.” Public Law Studies Quarterly 53, no. 3 (2023). https://doi.org/ 10.22059/jplsq.2022.332271.2915
17. Schmitt, Michael N. “Military Necessity and Humanity in International Humanitarian Law: Preserving the Delicate Balance.” Virginia Journal of International Law 50 (2010).
18. Shue, Henry and David Wippman, “Limiting Attacks on Dual-Use Facilities Performing Indispensable Civilian Functions,” Cornell International Law Journal 35 (2002).
19. Sobhani, Mahin. “A Review of Criminal Immunity of High-Ranking State Officials in International Crimes.” Criminal Law Research 1, no. 2 (2011).
20. Sobhani, Mahin, “Legal Interpretation or Political Condemnation? Third- Party Intervention before the International Court of Justice with Reference to Iran in South Africa v. Israel.” International Law Review 77, (2025). doi:10.22066/cilamag.2025.2065403.2755.
21. Stephens, Dale. “Behaviour in War: The Place of Law, Moral Inquiry and Self-Identity.” International Review of the Red Cross 96, nos. 895/896 (2014).
22. Swiney, Gabriel. “Saving Lives: The Principle of Distinction and the Realities of Modern War.” International Lawyer 39, no. 3 (2005).
23. Zamani, Ghasem, and Haleh Hosseini Akbarnajad. “The Principle of Universal Jurisdiction in the Mirror of the International Criminal Court.” Public Law Research Quarterly 11, no. 26 (2009).
- Instruments
1. Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 (Protocol I), (Adopted, 8 June 1977, entered into force 7 December 1978). https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/en/ihl-treaties/api-1977/article-48
2. Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court, (Adopted, 17 July 1998, entered into force 1 July 2002) UNTC. Retrieved from: https://treaties.un.org/Pages/ShowMTDSGDetails.aspx?src=UNTSONLINE&tabid=2&mtdsg_no=XVIII-10&chapter=18&lang=en
- Documents
1. Embassy of Ukraine to the Kingdom of the Netherlands, Note Verbale to the Registrar of the International Criminal Court Recognizing the Court’s Jurisdiction under Article 12(3) of the Rome Statute, The Hague, April 2014. Retrieved from: https://www.icc-cpi.int/sites/default/ files/declarationRecognitionJuristiction09-04-2014.pdf
2. Republic of Rwanda. Submission Pursuant to General Assembly Resolution 79/127 (4 December 2024): Information and Observations on the Scope and Application of Universal Jurisdiction. Permanent Mission of Rwanda to the United Nations. New York, 25 April 2025. Retrieved from: https://www.un.org/en/ga/sixth/80/universal_jurisdiction/rwanda_e.pdf
3. United Nations General Assembly, International Convention for the Suppression of the Financing of Terrorism, UN Doc. A/RES/54/109, 9 December 1999. Retrieved from: https://treaties.un.org/doc/db/terrorism/ english-18-11.pdf
4. United Nations General Assembly, Measures to Eliminate International Terrorism, UN Doc. A/RES/49/60, 9 December 1994.
5. United Nations General Assembly. Situation of Human Rights in the Islamic Republic of Iran: Note by the Secretary-General. A/80/349. 26 August 2025. Retrieved from: https://docs.un.org/en/A/C.3/80/L.30
6. United Nations Human Rights Council, Report of the United Nations Fact-Finding Mission on the Gaza Conflict. A/HRC/12/48. 25 September 2009. Retrieved from: https://www.ohchr.org/en/hr-bodies/hrc/special-sessions/session9/fact-finding-mission
7. United Nations General Assembly. United Nations Standard Minimum Rules for the Treatment of Prisoners (the Nelson Mandela Rules). Resolution 70/175, annex. Adopted 17 December 2015. Retrieved from: https://www.unodc.org/documents/justice-and-prison-reform/Nelson_ Mandela_Rules-E-ebook.pdf
- Cases
1. American Military Tribunal, Hostage Case (USA v. List et al.), Judgment, Nuremberg, 1948, 11 TWC 1230, 1253.
2. ICTY, Prosecutor v. Kordić and Čerkez, Case No. IT-95-14/2-A, Appeals Chamber Judgment, 17 December 2004, para. 686, referring to Lieber Code, Art. 14.
3. ICTY, Prosecutor v. Galić, Case No. IT-98-29-T, Judgment, 5 December 2003.
4. ICTY, Prosecutor v. Stanislav Galić, Case No. IT-98-29-A, Judgment, 30 November 2006.
5. ICTY, Prosecutor v. Radovan Karadžić and Ratko Mladić, Case No. IT-95-5/18-PT, Third Amended Indictment, 27 February 2009.
6. ICTY, Prosecutor v. Duško Tadić. Trial Chamber Judgement. Case No. IT‑94‑1‑T. 7 May 1997.
7. ICTY, Prosecutor v. Pavle Strugar, Appeals Chamber Judgement, Case No. IT‑01‑42‑A, 17 July 2008.
8. ICC, Prosecutor v. Bosco Ntaganda, Case No. ICC-01/04-02/06, Judgment, 8 July 2019.
9. ICC, Prosecutor v. Germain Katanga, Case No. ICC-01/04-01/07, Judgment, 7 March 2014.
10. ICC, Prosecutor v. Thomas Lubanga Dyilo, Case No. ICC-01/04-01/06, Judgment, 14 March 2012.
- Online Sources
1. Amnesty International. “Iran: Deliberate Israeli Attack on Tehran’s Evin Prison Must Be Investigated as a War Crime – New Evidence.” June 26, 2025. https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2025/07/iran-deliberate- israeli-attack-on-tehrans-evin-prison-must-be-investigated-as- a-war-crime/
2. Asre Iran, " Astaneh-ye-Ashrafiyeh one week after the Israeli Attack" Published on 1st July 2025 at: https://b2n.ir/AstanehAttack
4. DW News, “A look inside Iran's notorious Evin prison”, Gholami, Niloofar, Published on 20 October 2022 at: https://www.dw.com/en/ irans-evin-prison-experience-was-psychological-torture-says-former-prisoner/a-63509722
5. Eslami, Mohammad, and Ibrahim Al-Marashi. “The Day Evin Prison Burned: Why Israel’s Attack Crossed a Moral Line.” Informed Comment (2025). Retrieved from: https://www.juancole.com/human-rights/page/9
6. Human Rights Watch. “Iran: Israeli Attack on Evin Prison an Apparent War Crime.” August 14, 2025. https://www.hrw.org/news/2025/08/14/ iran-israeli-attack-on-evin-prison-an-apparent-war-crime.
7. Human Rights Watch. “Under Orders: War Crimes in Kosovo.” 2001. https://www.hrw.org/reports/2001/kosovo/.
8. HEINRICH BÖLL STIFTUNG BELGRADE, “State Crime in Dubrava Prison,” Published on 6 January 2014 at: https://rs.boell.org/en/2014/01/07/ state-crime-dubrava-prison
9. ICC, Assembly of States Parties to the Rome Statute, Accessed on 1/2/2026 at: https://asp.icc-cpi.int/states-parties/states-parties-chronological-list
12. International Commission of Jurists (ICJ). “Israel’s Attack on Iran Violates International Law, Threatening Peace and Security.” 2025. https://www.icj.org/israel-iran-israels-attack-on-iran-violates-international- law-threatening-peace-and-security/Milanovic, Marko. “Is Israel’s Use of Force Against Iran Justified by Self-Defence?” EJIL: Talk! (2025). Retrieved from: https://www.ejiltalk.org/is-israels-use-of-force-against-iran-justified-by-self-defence/
13. Médecins Sans Frontières, “The Practical Guide to Humanitarian Law – Proportionality” Accessed July 2025. https://guide-humanitarian-law. org/content/article/3/proportionality/
14. Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR). “Russian Strike on Ukrainian Prison Reportedly Kills at Least 16 and Injures Scores, UN Human Rights Monitors Say.” OHCHR Ukraine, 2024. https://ukraine.ohchr.org/en/Russian-strike-on-Ukrainian-prison-reportedly-kills-at-least-16-and-injures-scores-UN-Human-Rights- Monitors- say
15. PBS News, "Israeli airstrike on Iranian prison was an ‘apparent war crime,’ Human Rights Watch says”, Chehayeb, Karim, Published on August 14, 2025, at: https://www.pbs.org/newshour/world/israeli-airstrike- on-iranian-prison-was-an-apparent-war-crime-human-rights-watch-says
16. Reliefweb, "Iran: Deliberate Israeli attack on Tehran’s Evin prison must be investigated as a war crime", Published on 22 July 2025 at: https://reliefweb.int/report/iran-islamic-republic/iran-deliberate-israeli-attack-tehrans-evin-prison-must-be-investigated-war-crime
18. The New York Times, “What to Know About Iran's Notorious Evin Prison”, Mpoke Bigg, Matthew, Published on June 23, 2025, Updated June 25, 2025, at: https://www.nytimes.com/2025/06/23/world/middleeast/ evin-prison-iran.html
21. UN News, “Yemen: Call for Independent Probe into Deadly Prison Airstrikes,” Published on 28 January 2022 at: https://news.un.org/en/ story/2022/01/1110842
22. France24, “Saudi-led coalition denies targeting prison after Yemen strike kills dozens”, Published on 22 January 2022 at: https://www.france24.com/ en/middle-east/20220122-saudi-led-coalition-denies-targeting-prison-after-yemen-strike-kills-dozens
23. Geneva Convention of 1949, Additional Protocols and their Commentaries, Article 48-Basic Rule, Accessed on 8/13/2025 at: https://ihl-databases.icrc.org/ en/ihl-treaties/api-1977/article-48.
